Let’s address HOW to deal with the test scores that you get.

Why?

It turns out that the way school leadership, as well as the staff, thinks about, discusses, and frames the conversations about test scores actually affects future scores.

How does this happen and how should a staff debrief the testing?

The Research

The way that your staff frames their results and frames their work is critical to the ongoing success at your school.

A “framing effect” is usually said to occur when varied, but usually equivalent descriptions (of a product/experience/decision or problem) lead to very different decisions. We’ve all known this as, “It’s not what you say, but how you say it.”

New research done at the University of Michigan by Juth and Helgesson (2012) suggests that your expectations and predictions shape your future efforts via the “framing effect.”

If we started a hypothetical group of elementary children, all earning the same letter grades (ex. A, B, … F), here is how their expectations matter. In those children expecting to become a teacher, an engineer, or a nurse when they grew up, this study successfully predicted that they’d work harder in school.

In this same study, nine out of ten children expected they would attend at least a two-year college, but less than half saw themselves as having an educational degree-dependent job. This is why it is so important to tie their dreams to an actual job, not just to college.

At the secondary level, researchers presented two different options of information to two groups of students. They heard about either:

1) potential education-dependent earnings of college degree recipients, such as a biologist, or,
2) potential earnings of actors, musicians, and sports figures.

The kids who saw how adult earnings were related to education were eight times more likely to do the homework as those who saw the presentation showing adult earnings independent of the amount of education needed.

This shows that a small, but powerful, intervention of showing how much education matters will likely have a major effect on the likelihood of that child’s investment in schooling.

Wonder why some teachers get kids to work harder for them? Very subtle cues can influence academic performance. Failing to see connections between adult identities and current actions puts children at risk of low effort in school. Do not wait until low-income and minority children are in high school. Start these connections early…in lower elementary school!

Whether your testing results are superb or disappointing, there’s a lesson in there for you. But the opportunity to move forward in your pursuit of excellence may depend not on the facts, but on your perception and analysis of the facts.

Framing has been a major topic of research in the psychology of judgment, understanding, thinking and decision-making and is widely viewed as carrying significant implications.

For example, low scores can be framed as, “(Bleep!) We knew it. There’s nothing you can do with these kids.” Low scores could also be framed as, “Now that’s feedback – that what we’re doing is not working. Let’s rethink this and come up with a better plan.”

In addition, if you ask your colleagues, “Where do you realistically expect our school to be (academically, in terms of student achievement) in 3 years?” Those that expect the school to be much better and even achieve noteworthy status will work harder to help your staff get there. In fact, they are more likely to see low test scores as evidence that they must put in more effort, better strategies or a stronger attitude. This is a great practical idea!

Those with lower future expectations about your school are more likely to see any additional time, meetings, accountability or preparation as a burden. They are less likely to do what it takes to make a miracle happen.

So, if your test scores are high and the school conditions are stable, some staff will see this as “proof” that what they are doing is working. They’ll believe they’re on the right track and want to continue.

Others will see this as “proof” that they have “made it” and it is no longer necessary to have a daily urgency to their work. That’s a mistake.

Accentuate the positive or accentuate the negative? The literature has been mixed. There appear to be many types of framing effects. One is the risky choice framing effect (ex. 90% chance of living or a 10% chance of dying). At school, “We have a 40% chance of success or a 60% chance of failure.”

Another framing effect is attribute framing, which affects the evaluation of object or event characteristics. “It’s those damnable tests, which are never fair!” Or, “Those tests are our friend. As we get better, the tests will like us more!”

The third is goal orientation, which effects the power of communication. “You do want to live another year, don’t you? Then take this medicine!” You’ll see how to use that in the next (Practical Applications) section.

In short, things are NOT the way they are. They are mostly, the way we think they are, or the way we feel about them, or the way we are vested in a certain outcome. In short, framing is no trivial strategy; it’s the narrative of our lives.

Practical Applications

There are many ways to apply this information.

First, let’s apply this research to your staff debriefing of test data. You’ll want to structure this meeting with a timekeeper!

Before you start any staff meeting, ask yourself, “What is the lens through which we want our staff to understand and respond to the school data?”

Remember from the section above: There were three types of framing mentioned: 1) risky choice, 2) attribute, or 3) goal orientation.

Let’s use the last one, goal orientation. Ask the KEY question, BEFORE the staff can look at the data and before you start the debriefing: “Where do we expect our school to be in 3 years?” This is critical! If any staff member does not expect your school staff to reach the stated goals, NOW is the time to have a conversation with them.

Ask the staff members that are “iffy” about reaching your school goals, “What kind of evidence would you need to see and when would you need to see it to decide if it’s possible for us to reach our school goals?” The answer to this is the key.

Let the staff share what specifically would tell them that it’s worth their time, energy and motivation to make massive changes in the way they do their job. If your school can’t meet their criteria for them “believing”, there needs to be a separate (fierce) conversation with these staff members, outside of the meeting.

Once that is squared away, here are the debrief steps for your meeting.

1. You set up the meeting tone with your framing first.

2. Review the results and have each staff member share their first impressions from their first data review (surprises or disappointments). Determine the proficiency cut-off for scores for all students in the grade level.

3. Divide the total group into three performing levels so that intervention efforts can be planned more efficiently.

4. Celebrate the students that have made strong progress.

5. Then, focus on the lowest-performing of the three groups, first. Analyze one student within this group at a time. Begin each individual case looking at testing patterns, and find which standards the student mastered and did not master.

6. Review of the possible issues with each of your kids, such as Attendance, English Language Learners, etc.

7. Begin to formulate a plan. Review the materials, strategies, and time as well as learning problems or issues. Design intervention strategies based on which standards need to be taught to mastery, how best to meet the academic needs of the students, when to provide intervention or reteaching, etc. There’s a good chance you’ll build attitudes, but most likely executive function skills.

8. Next set targets: who will be working with each student, what should be done differently to support each, set the academic goals, and identify how the goal will be measured. Figure out what assets you’ll need (software, PD, etc.) and how and where to get them. Discuss necessary resources with the principal.

9. Repeat this process with the remaining two performing groups (middle and high).

10. Set up regular team meetings and goals. Start with small miracles. Wash, rinse, and repeat.

Now, let’s apply the University of Michigan (above) research to students in your classroom.

Say to your kids, “Think about yourself as an adult. What are some jobs you think you’ll have? What will you be doing in 5, 10,15 years?” Next, ask kids to write down how much education they will need to get the job they envision. This extra thinking will help become a motivational driver for your kids who will need the college education.

REMINDER: if you work at a Title 1 school, with 80% or more of the kids on free and reduced lunch, then listen carefully. I am looking for schools that are struggling. If your test scores are in the bottom 25% in your district, I may be able to help you. Please contact me at eric@jlcbrain.com. Thank you.

Your partner in learning,

Eric Jensen
CEO, Jensen Learning
Brain-Based Education
________________________________________
REFERENCES
Kahneman, D. (2000). “Preface.” In Choices, Values, and Frames, ed. Kahneman and Tversky. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lynöe N, Juth N, Helgesson G. (2012). Case study of a framing effect in course evaluations. Med Teach. 34(1):68-70.
Destin M, Oyserman, D. (2010). Incentivizing education: Seeing schoolwork as an investment, not a chore. J Exp Soc Psychol. Sep 1;46(5):846-849.

The clock is ticking. Poverty is not going away, testing is not going away and accountability is not going away.

Our summer sessions are filling up fast. Right now, the location with the most openings (so far) is Jacksonville, Florida. Book your staff for Jacksonville (or San Antonio and Charlotte) as soon as possible. In Jacksonville we are offering “Teaching with Poverty in Mind” or “Tools for Engagement”, but you’ll have to move fast.

The early bird discount expires on April 15… so don’t miss it!

May I suggest “Tools for Maximum Engagement”… CLICK HERE.

When I talk about student engagement, teacher’s heads typically nod up and down as if they universally agree how critical it is. Yet, when I go visit classes (elementary, secondary or college level) the actual % of students being engaged is typically low.

Listen, I can’t make you take a program. But I can tell you that once you take this summer’s special 2-Day “Tools for Maximum Engagement” workshop, you’ll have a lifetime of tools.

Every day, you’ll feel proud, knowing how well your students have learned. Each week, you’ll see happy students who enjoy the learning process. You’ll be admired by your peers and your students will look forward to every class. On top of that, your test scores will improve because kids who are engaged daily, learn more. Plus, every night, you’ll sleep well, knowing that your class is pretty awesome.

I never know if I’ll EVER do any particular workshop again or not. This summer could be your last chance, ever. Whether your school will pay for it or not, go do it. You can’t afford to be less than amazing in your job.

To find out more about this amazing 2-day summer experience CLICK HERE.

By the way, sometimes it makes better sense to have me come out to school and work with the entire staff. You may want to browse the menu of my presentation possibilities for your school CLICK HERE. I’ll show your staff exactly how to teach with the brain in mind.

Reducing Risk and Building Resilience

Studies in positive psychology have shown that resilience rates high among attitude-based protective factors that help children achieve academic success in environments where, statistically speaking, the odds are against them.

In 2006, researchers at the University of Michigan’s Center for Human Growth and Development showed that preschoolers facing eight or more environmental risk factors such as maternal mental illness or single parenthood, minority status or stressful life events, scored more than 30 points below children with no risk factors on tests of IQ. Yet, they consistently found that groups of high resilient children in high-risk environments still outperformed their peers.

But how do we develop high resilience in our kids and ourselves?

Strategies

The astonishing thing, the great surprise of resilience research, is the ordinariness of strategies needed for success.

Firm guidance, structured rituals and a focus on each child’s strengths, while simultaneously challenging and supporting students, are among the developmental supports in grouping of high expectations. For kids that learn resilience on their own, protective factors may include independence, social skills, relationships, self esteem, temperament and a sense of purpose and competence seem to run parallel to positive psychology constructs such as effort, optimism and hope.

Always high on the list of strategies is the importance of social competence among peers, supportive relationships with adults, opportunities for meaningful participation and high expectations. Others list a similar set of developmental supports including caring relationships, meaningful participation and high expectations.

While good study habits are important to promote cognitive development, studies show the promotion of positive relationships with peers can contribute not only to children’s social development but to their emotional and cognitive development well-being, too. It is equally important that the teachers themselves have a highly developed sense of optimism, plus understand and exhibit social and emotional competence. Students are not born with resilience; it is something students learn, and if they are not learning it adequately at home, schools have to teach. They cannot attain their academic success without it.

Teachers can play a key role by creating positive learning environments for children.

They can model their belief that life is doable and that mistakes are opportunities to learn. They realize that when children use self-defeating behaviors such as acting out, bullying, clowning or giving up, they may be masking feelings of hopelessness, vulnerability and low self-esteem. Use of rituals or respectful routines and a safe environment will help reduce behaviors that detract from the caring environment in the classroom.

When combined, meaningful opportunities and high expectations give children the opportunity to develop a sense of mastery by meeting little goals in a step-wise succession. Laying down a track record of personal gains and small accomplishments work into proud memories and big hopes. The self confidence built upon these experiences means that new challenges can be tackled and the bar can be raised on academic achievement.

In fact, one study found that those who were in more challenging academic programs showed significantly lower levels of depression and, as a bidirectional study, left open the interesting question of which was the causative agent — did the more rigorous curriculum protect students from depression or were happier students more successful?

One of the largest predictors of academic achievement was the students’ perceptions of their own abilities. Another was higher educational aspirations which may serve as a goal and a motivator for adolescents, providing them with a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives, as well as promoting a sense of hope. Meaning and purpose, it appears then, are important to academic achievement, and hope can be leveraged as a catalyst for achievement by nurturing meaningful participation.

Transfer Time

Now, you’ve read about all of the things that apply to kids. Your next action step is translation. How can you take what you already do, that matches with the steps above, and expand or strengthen it?

This is no idle activity: it is about just one thing. This is about the quality of your life. This is not rocket science. Notice what the research says, and apply. If your students are worth your “best effort,” shouldn’t the person that GIVES the best effort also be worthy of your “best effort”? Of course notice what you do well, and keep doing it.

Take one thing and do just a bit more of it. Can you start today?

Your partner in learning,

Eric Jensen
CEO, Jensen Learning
Brain-Based Education

This month, we’ll focus on how to prepare for existing state and national tests. I’ll focus on three things that can help your students improve their chances to score up to their potential. By the way, kids never score above their potential; they’re just not going to randomly make enough lucky right answers time after time after time (in statistics, it’s called regression to the mean).

But, they often underperform for a host of reasons, even when they should perform much better. While we could focus on dozens of variables that influence standardized testing, we’ll focus on these three: 1) brain chemistry, 2) priming, and 3) episodic memory triggers. Some of these suggestions got so many rave reviews that they are reproduced from an earlier bulletin!

The Research

Ten Minutes to Better Scores

Two laboratory and two randomized field studies tested a psychological intervention designed to improve students’ scores on high-stakes exams. These simple ten-minute activities can raise test scores. One well-designed study showed that writing about testing worries prior to taking the exam boosts exam performance in the classroom.

The study authors expected that sitting for an important exam leads to worries about the situation and its consequences that undermine test performance. What the authors tested was… whether having students write down their thoughts about an upcoming test could improve test performance.

This simple intervention, a brief expressive writing assignment that occurred immediately before taking an important test, significantly improved students’ exam scores, especially for students habitually anxious about test taking. Simply writing about one’s worries before a high-stakes exam can boost test scores. It does it by more than 10% and it’s quick and free (Ramirez G, Beilock, SL., 2011).

Brain Chemistry and Testing There are three chemicals to focus on for optimal testing results: 1) dopamine (it generally facilitates informational transfer within limbic and cortical networks to promote working memory and reward-seeking behavior, says Luciana, et al. 1998), 2) noradrenaline (it generally promotes a more narrowed focus, sharper attention and improved memory. This system plays a specific role in the regulation of cognitive functions, including sustained attention, working memory, impulse control, and the planning of voluntary behavior), and 3) glucose (it provides short term energy and, in low to moderate doses, promotes enhanced memory (Krebs DL, Parent MB., 2005).

The Power of Suggestion

Can you influence testing outcomes by “prepping” their brain for success? It has long been proposed that motivational responses that were subtle could serve as priming to effect academic performance. A recent study showed that yes, it can be done and they can show you how to do it. “You can prep the brain several ways. One is by showing them the letter “A” in advance.” (I’ll tell you “how” in a moment.) The other one of our two “prepping” studies is to give peppermints to all kids for your final review, then use them again at the time of the big test. (Barker, et al. 2003). This raises attentional levels and provides glucose.

Location of the Test Itself

I have always advocated that we ensure that students taking the test take it in the room in which they studied for it. That’s the power of episodic or content memory. But, there’s more to it. Stress is an issue, too. Stress impaired memory when assessed in the unfamiliar context, but not when assessed in the learning context (Schwabe L., and Wolf OT, 2009). In short, if your students can’t be in the test-givers room to learn the material, at least bring them into the testing room and do a review there days before the event.

Practical Applications

Let’s “flesh out” each of the studies listed above. The first category is about enhancing brain chemicals. This is fairly easy to do.

Dopamine can be strengthened by 1) voluntary gross motor repetitive movements, like marching, relays, playing a game. It is enhanced by strong positive feelings like reunions and celebrations. Most of all, it’s enhanced by looking forward to something very good.

Norepinephrine is enhanced by 1) risk, like a student speaking in front of his/her peers, 2) urgency, like serious deadlines for compelling tasks, and 3) excitement, like theater, competition, comedy, the arts.

Glucose is enhanced by 1) food sources: complex carbs are best, but almost any source can do in a pinch, 2) physical activity: glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen and released in the form of glucose, and 3) any time we are experiencing emotions.

The study that I mentioned earlier used peppermint odor during simple skill practice, performance, memorization, and alphabetization. Participants completed the protocol twice–once with peppermint odor present and once without. Analysis indicated significant differences in the gross speed, net speed, and accuracy on the task, with odor associated with improved performance. The study results suggest peppermint odor may promote a general arousal of attention, so participants stay focused on their task and increase performance.

The Power of Suggestion

You can influence testing outcomes by “prepping” their brain for success with a positive suggestion. Sound like Star Trek “Vulcan” Mind Control? Or, is it more like “Obi Wan Kenobe”? It’s neither. It has long been proposed that motivational responses that were subtle could serve as priming to affect academic performance. The research study I mentioned above was conducted at a large research university in the USA. Here is what they started with:

23 undergraduates participated in Group 1 (were conducted in classroom settings)
32 graduate students in Group 2 (were conducted in classroom settings)
76 undergraduates in Group 3 (were conducted in laboratory setting)

The “mind games” manipulation came in the form of a “Test Bank ID code” (completely phony) on the cover of a test. The ID Code was needed because participants were prompted to view and write it on each page of their test. The letters used were “A” (the positive priming for group 1), “F” (the negative priming for group 2) and “J” (the neutral, control group 3). Students who got the “A” on their ID Code outperformed BOTH the “F” on the code and the “J” control group. Students are vulnerable to evaluative letters presented before a task, these results support years of research highlighting the significant role that our nonconscious processes play in achievement settings.

Location of the Test Itself

Stress before retention testing impairs memory, whereas memory performance is enhanced when the learning context is reinstated at retrieval. As a general rule, low-moderate stress is best for encoding and for retrieving, it is best to match the encoding stress level. I have always advocated that we ensure that students taking the test take it in the room in which they studied for it. That’s the power of episodic or content memory.

But there’s more to it. Stress is an issue, too.

The study examined whether the negative impact of stress before memory retrieval can be attenuated when memory is tested in the same environmental context as that in which learning took place. These results suggest that the detrimental effects of stress on memory retrieval can be abolished when a distinct learning context is reinstated at test.

Stress impaired the student’s memory when assessed in the unfamiliar context, but not when assessed in the learning context (Schwabe L., and Wolf OT., 2009). In short, if your students can’t be in the test-givers room to learn the material, at least, bring them into the testing room and do a review there days before the event.

Combine for Positive Synergy

Remember, the science is solid when you consider each strategy separately. But combined, these strategies may help you get to the next level. As Chef Emeril would say they could give you “BAM!” power.

BONUS: Here’s what to do after the interim tests (but before the big “Standards Tests”). We know that reflection and meta thinking can be powerful. Debbie Barber, a sixth grade teacher at Ackerman Middle School in Canby, Oregon says, “My kids have a chance to improve their scores by doing a test autopsy. They correct their mistakes and then write a half page reflection on why they did so poorly and what they should have done differently. They earn a half point for each corrected answer. Not only do the parents love it, the test scores have improved and the students are really taking ownership of their work!”

This is the potential of smarter, targeted teaching. But you have to commit to the process and ensure that it gets done. Don’t let anyone say, “I’ve heard of all that!” Get your staff on board and start making miracles. Is this awesome or not?

Let’s cut to the chase: everything you do in your classroom is likely to have SOME effect on the brain. Brain-based education says, “Be purposeful about it.” Now, go have some fun and make another miracle happen!

Research:

• Barker S, Grayhem P, Koon J, Perkins J, Whalen A, Raudenbush B. Improved
  performance on clerical tasks associated with administration of peppermint odor.
  Percept Mot Skills. 2003 Dec;97(3 Pt 1):1007-10.
• Arnsten AF. Through the looking glass: differential noradrenergic modulation of prefrontal cortical function. Neural Plast. 2000;7:133–46. [PubMed]
• Ciani KD, Sheldon KM. (2010) A versus F: the effects of implicit letter priming on cognitive performance. Br J Educ Psychol. Mar;80(Pt 1):99-119.
• Fulkerson, F. E.; and G. Martin. 1981. Effects of exam frequency on student performance, evaluations of instructor, and test anxiety. Teaching of Psychology; April, 8(2): 90-93.
• Krebs DL, Parent MB. (2005) The enhancing effects of hippocampal infusions of glucose are not restricted to spatial working memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem. Mar;83(2):168-72.
• Luciana, M., Collins, PF and RA Depue (1998) Opposing roles for dopamine and serotonin in the modulation of human spatial working memory function Cerebral Cortex Volume 8, Number 3, Pp. 218-226.
• Schwabe, L, Wolf OT. (2009) The context counts: congruent learning and testing
  environments prevent memory retrieval impairment following stress. Cogn Affect
  Behav Neurosci. Sep;9(3):229-36.
• Ramirez G, Beilock, SL. Writing about testing worries boosts exam performance
  in the classroom. Science. 2011 Jan 14;331(6014):211-3.

TV host and “technologist” Keith Barry shows you some unbelievable magic and “how easy it is to manipulate the human mind once you know how.” Keith Barry shows how to trick the human brain with routines that exploit its bugs and loopholes, and offering a revealing look at the software between our ears.

Enjoy.

Barry’s repertoire ranges from outrageous stunts — driving a car at full speed blindfolded — to mind control, including hypnosis and mindreading. The Irish magician’s relaxed style has made him an audience favorite worldwide, both in live shows and on his European television series, Close Encounters with Keith Barry, which aired in 28 countries. He’s had specials on MTV and CBS, and tried his hand at acting as a murder suspect on CSI: Miami. There are rumors of a Las Vegas residency later in 2008.

Most, but not all, have regrets as they age. People wish they would have done things differently as they look back at their life. Seniors often look at broken marriages and say, “If only…” Many look at bad decisions and wish they could get an “instant replay” or second chance.  I thought it might be productive to ask someone who has heard from hundreds of people (both young and old).

When questioned about any regrets they had or anything they would do differently, Bronnie Ware heard the same five common themes over and over and over. (Excerpted from the book, The Top Five Regrets of the Dying by Bronnie Ware).

After you read them, ask yourself, “Is there anything (at all) in my life that I truly regret?” And secondly, “Is there anything that I can do now, in the next days, weeks or months, to make my life full, complete and satisfying.

After all, we don’t always die according to our own plan. Well, here they are, all five regrets.

1. I wish I’d had the courage to live a life true to myself, not the life others expected of me.

This was the most common regret of all. When people realize that their life is almost over and look back clearly on it, it is easy to see how many dreams have gone unfulfilled. Most people had not honored even a half of their dreams and had to die knowing that it was due to choices they had made, or not made.

It is very important to try and honor at least some of your dreams along the way. From the moment that you lose your health, it is too late. Health brings a freedom very few realize, until they no longer have it.

2. I wish I didn’t work so hard.

This came from every male patient that I nursed. They missed their children’s youth and their partner’s companionship. Women also spoke of this regret. But, as most were from an older generation, many of the female patients had not been breadwinners. All of the men I nursed deeply regretted spending so much of their lives on the treadmill of a work existence.

By simplifying your lifestyle and making conscious choices along the way, it is possible to not need the income that you think you do. And by creating more space in your life, you become happier and more open to new opportunities, ones more suited to your new lifestyle.

3. I wish I’d had the courage to express my feelings.

Many people suppressed their feelings in order to keep peace with others. As a result, they settled for a mediocre existence and never became who they were truly capable of becoming. As a result, many developed illnesses related to the bitterness and resentment they carried.

We cannot control the reactions of others. However, although people may initially react when you change the way you are by speaking honestly, in the end it raises the relationship to a whole new and healthier level. Either that or it releases the unhealthy relationship from your life. Either way, you win.

4. I wish I had stayed in touch with my friends.

Often they would not truly realize the full benefits of old friends until their dying weeks and it was not always possible to track them down. Many had become so caught up in their own lives that they had let golden friendships slip by over the years. There were many deep regrets about not giving friendships the time and effort that they deserved. Everyone misses their friends when they are dying.

It is common for anyone in a busy lifestyle to let friendships slip. But when you are faced with your approaching death, the physical details of life fall away. People do want to get their financial affairs in order if possible. But it is not money or status that holds the true importance for them. They want to get things in order more for the benefit of those they love. Usually though, they are too ill and weary to ever manage this task. It all comes down to love and relationships in the end. That is all that remains in the final weeks, love and relationships.

5. I wish that I had let myself be happier.

This is a surprisingly common one. Many did not realize until the end that happiness is a choice. They had stayed stuck in old patterns and habits. The so-called ‘comfort’ of familiarity overflowed into their emotions, as well as their physical lives. Fear of change had them pretending to others, and to their selves, that they were content. When deep within, they longed to laugh properly and have silliness in their life again.

When you are on your deathbed, what others think of you is a long way from your mind. How wonderful to be able to let go and smile again, long before you are dying.

Life is a choice. It is YOUR life. Choose consciously, choose wisely, and choose honestly. Choose happiness.

ERIC’S ADDITION: One cannot always choose every aspect of their circumstances, job, relationships or family. What we can choose, every single waking moment of our lives, is our RESPONSE to those things. And it is our response that determines the quality of life, not our circumstances.

Make the choices that will bring you joy. Life is short; rock on!

Your partner in learning,

Eric Jensen 
CEO, Jensen Learning 
Brain-Based Education

Myth: Kids Talk Too Much At School

Do your students talk too much? Some teachers think kids talk TOO much at school, and they spend a portion of their day trying to “manage the noise”.

Actually, that’s false! It seems we are social before we are born and that some schools artificially suppress our social side. Researchers believe that brains may be hard-wired to be social (autism is an exception, of course). We know newborns come into the world wired to socially interact. But is this a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth? Twin pregnancies provide a unique opportunity to investigate the social pre-wiring hypothesis.

A new study shows that by the 14th week of gestation twin fetuses do not only display movements directed towards the uterine wall and self-directed movements, but also movements specifically aimed at the co-twin, the proportion of which increases between the 14th and 18th gestational week. These inter-twin responses are not coincidental, the research shows. The intra-pair contact is the result of motor planning rather then the accidental outcome of bumping each other due to spatial proximity. By the 14th week of gestation twin fetuses clearly execute movements specifically aimed at purposeful (vs. random) interacting with the co-twin. This supports a large body of postnatal evidence for a relational bias.

School behaviors are highly social experiences, which become encoded through our sense of reward, acceptance, pain, pleasure, coherence, affinity and stress. In fact, poor social conditions, isolation or social “defeat” are correlated with fewer brain cells! Nobody knew this occurred five or ten years ago. But we now know that “prosocial” environments literally enhance neurogenesis (brain cell production). By the way, those new cells support learning, memory and mood regulation.

In fact, the opposite can hurt the brain! Social isolation can exacerbate the negative consequences of stress and increase the risk of developing psychopathology. At the moment, there are many mitigating circumstances, so one cannot say that living alone (non-social life) is bad for the brain. But, what we do know is that individual housing precludes the positive influence of short-term running on adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus of rats. Plus, we know that in the presence of additional stress, social isolation suppresses the generation of new neurons. The science tells us that, in the absence of social interaction, a normally beneficial experience (exercise) can exert a potentially deleterious influence on the brain (ouch!). In short, spend a portion of your day around people AND let kids do it too.

Out in the real world, people talk to other people at their jobs, at home and when they’re out relaxing. Who ever thought that kids should be quiet, sit in rows and only talk when spoken to?

The answer: someone who was training kids for solitary factory jobs.

In today’s world, the social factors play a huge role in kid’s education. In fact, data from the Education Longitudinal Study finds that a student’s perception of social context (teacher support and parent support) predicts students’ self-perceptions (perception of control and identification with school), which in turn predict students’ academic and behavioral engagement, and that predicts academic achievement. Further, students’ academic and behavioral engagement and achievement in 10th grade were associated with decreased likelihood of dropping out of school in 12th grade. In short, when kids feel connected in school, they stay in school and graduate!

Practical Applications

Do NOT allow random social groupings for more than 10-20% of the school day. Use targeted, planned, diverse social groupings with mentoring, teams and buddy systems. Build cooperative groups and teams. Stop suppressing social activity and start incorporating it into your work.

How is the seating in your classroom? If your students spend all of class in isolated rows, I feel sad. This is the year 2012. Allow students more time to interact!

Students should spend about 50% of every school day interacting with others. Strengthen partner work. Work to strengthen pro-social conditions. Teacher-to-student relationships matter, as do student-to-student relationships. Use more “turn-tos” in class (“Turn to your neighbor and thank them!”).

In short nearly EVERYTHING you do can become social.

How do you make this happen? If you give directions for anything, ask students to repeat them to a partner. When students succeed at a task, they give a neighbor a high-five. When students learn something new, they teach a partner. When you want to find out how far along they are, ask students to look on their neighbor’s paper and raise their hand if they see half or more completed, etc. Well, you get the point. Every single thing you do can become social–if you want it to be social and if it’s appropriate.

Research:

Castiello, U., Becchio, C., Zoia, S., Nelini, C., Sartor, L., et al. (2010) Wired to Be Social: The Ontogeny of Human Interaction. PLoS ONE 5(10): e13199.
Champagne FA, Curley JP. (2005) How social experiences influence the brain. Curr Opin Neurobiology. Dec;15(6):704-9.
R. M. Sapolsky (2005) The Influence of Social Hierarchy on Primate Health Science, April 29; 308(5722): 648 – 652.
Fall AM, Roberts G. (2011) High school dropouts: Interactions between social context, self-perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. J Adolesc. Dec 6.
Stranahan, AM, Khalil, D, Gould E. (2006) Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis. Nat Neurosci. Apr;9(4):526-33.

 photo credit: gfpeck

One of the best-kept secrets in the travel world is the city of Guilin in mainland China. It’s about 325 miles NW of Hong Kong. In Guilin, there is a fabulous panda enclosure. We were the only visitors that morning.”

This is an amazing natural park in Guilin. It’s has waterfalls, epic scenery, beautiful walkways, monkeys running around and places to be at one with your thoughts. Here we are on the bridge, about to cross into the park.”

This remote city is Yangshu, as beautiful as it gets. A few hotels, but mostly bustling shops and restaurants. We took our class in cooking school here and learned how to make some very tasty Chinese treats.

What is Brain-Based Teaching?

I get asked this question a lot… so  I am going to provide an explanation of what Brain-Based teaching is, as well as clear up any myths or misconceptions about it.

Brain-Based education is the active engagement of practical strategies based on learning and behavioral principles derived from neuroscience.

All teachers use strategies; the difference here is that you’re using strategies based on real science, not because someone said that they work.

An example of a principle would be…”Brains change based on experience.” The science tells us HOW they change in response to experience. The strategies are based on what we’ve learned from studies on how brains change.

Questions are often raised about the reliability of brain research for training or classroom applications. Cautious, conservative skeptics will, by nature, be hesitant to embrace new things. Overzealous or impulsive risk-takers will, by nature, try almost anything, founded or not.

Our position is let the science do the talking

A better-informed educator usually makes better decisions. We collect the research, form conclusions and make suggestions. Every effort is made to select from reliable sources with supporting data. If the studies are conflicting, we’ll either say so or not present it to you. You’ll need to be the ultimate judge as to whether and how the research fits in your particular learning climate.

One must be cautious and prudent in how research is interpreted and ultimately used. Our policy is to look for both the basic neuroscience research and match it with data from applied psychology or cognitive science. When there are multiple studies, with good samples and clear evidence, you’ll hear about it.

We will never say, “Brain research proves….” because it does not prove anything. It may however suggest the value of a particular pathway. We have heard five basic criticisms about brain-based education. Here’s what they are and our answers to them.

1. “The findings are often exaggerated, misinterpreted and taken way too far.”

RESPONSE: This criticism is genuine. Many well-meaning educators have gone way beyond the research and said that it “proves” that a “certain” classroom strategy is justified. We often hear educators making claims that have no basis in research. Educators who are going to use or quote research ought to know what makes a good study, who is funding it, the reputation of the researcher, the design of the study, what are the implications and constraints on the findings. A little information can be dangerous.

To be accepted as professionals, educators must know their stuff.

We assert that brain research proves nothing. There is no body of brain-based research that justifies every strategy of so-called “good teaching.” In fact, most of what passes for good teaching is a collection of folk wisdom, basic psychology and common sense refined by trial and error. However, new findings can steer all of us in more productive directions.

What educators should say is the following…”These studies suggest that XYZ may be true about the brain. Given that insight, it probably makes sense for us, under these conditions, to use the following strategies in schools.”

This approach, which is cautionary and not causal, sticks with the truth. First, that there are valuable, new studies and second, that given the insight of those studies, certain actions seem to make good sense. We do not claim that “brain-based” is or should be the only criteria for deciding what to do. It’s a bad idea to base a school on biology alone. However, if schools ignore it, they are being equally reckless.

2. “There is nothing new in this approach.”

RESPONSE: When people say “good teachers have been doing this for years,” two things are true. First, you may be very young or have a short memory. Only 40 years ago, good teaching was defined by all-lecture, content-laden classes, clean desks, quiet students (in their seats), with little movement. Yes, it’s true that some teachers have been using brain-compatible strategies for centuries, but most have been moving towards a more brain-friendly approach.

Keep in mind that if you don’t know why you do what you do, it’s less purposeful and less professional. It’s probably your collected, refined wisdom. Nothing wrong with that, but some of the “collected, refined wisdom” has led to some bad teaching, too.

But to be purposeful about your work; ah… that is another matter.

Are there recent discoveries from the world of brain-mind science that can be applied to the classroom? You bet!

Here’s a list highlighting a few specific areas of research that have important implications for learning, memory, schools and trainings.

• The growing brain: the human brain can and does grow new cells
• The social brain: how interactions and social status impacts stress levels
• The hormonal brain: hormones can and do impact cognition
• The moving brain: how movement influences learning
• The plastic brain: changing; how to better enrich the brain to rewire changes
• The spatial brain: how space and relational learning & recall works
• The attentional brain: prefrontal cortex; what really drives attention and ADD
• The emotional brain: impact of threats on hormones, memory, cells and genes
• The adaptive brain: the impact of distress, cortisol & allostatic states
• The patient brain: the role of time in the learning process
• The computational brain: the role of feedback in forming neural networks
• The artful brain: the role of arts and music
• The connected brain: how our brain is body and body is brain
• The developing brain: what to do and when to do it; value of the first 3 years
• The hungry brain: what to eat; the role of nutrition in learning and memory
• The memorable brain: how our memories are encoded and retrieved
• The chemical brain: which chemicals do what & how to activate the right ones

As you can tell, these discoveries come from many areas. Critics who worry over where the research comes from are missing the point. Educators need to, and ought to, combine the findings of the brain/mind field with other fields to diversify and strengthen the applications. Neuroscience is not the only source for research; it’s an important part of a larger puzzle. When you synthesize it with other fields like sociology, chemistry, anthropology, future studies, anthropology, therapy and others, you can get some powerful applications.

Cognitive science, psychology, neurobiology, and neuroscience are all studying the same thing! They are interested in the brain/mind and how it works. The brain is what you have, the mind is using it. Different fields do research at different levels. Basic neuroscience research is usually done at the molecular, genetic or cellular level. At this level, we hear of neurogenesis and the growth of stem cells. That’s contrasted with applied cognitive sciences, which may feature animal studies, or clinical studies that show the real world behaviors we are equally interested in.

The point is, we now know enough about the brain to justify specific strategies that only a few years ago were just good ideas without scientific basis. Here’s an example. We have irrefutable evidence that embedding intense emotions (like a celebration or drama) into an activity may stimulate the release of adrenaline, which may encode the memory of the learning much stronger.

3. “Brain-based education is confusing. One person says one thing, another says the opposite.”

RESPONSE: I agree. There needs to be better sharing and networking so that all of us are on “the same page.” Many ill-informed educators are still confused about some learning basics.

Here is a summary of some of the myths and realities.

MYTH: Early childhood experiences cause our synaptic count to multiply rapidly.

REALITY: If anything, we lose synapses through a “pruning” process in the first five years.

MYTH: Low stress learning is best.

REALITY: In general, moderate levels optimize learning. Under some conditions, low stress is better, and in others, higher stress is better.

MYTH: Research proves the critical need to capitalize on the early windows of opportunity.

REALITY: Normal childhood experiences usually produce normal kids. The most critical windows are those for our senses, the parent-infant emotional attunement, language learning and a non-distressed sense of safety. Those are irretrievable time slots in our lives–once they pass, it’s too late. Other opportunities, like social skills, reading, music and language have a much longer window of opportunity.

MYTH: Rote memorization is brain-antagonistic.

REALITY: The brain strengthens learning through repetition. It’s not repetition that’s bad; it’s when it becomes too boring. There are many creative and fun ways to review.

MYTH: Environments primarily determine learner success.

REALITY: Many factors influence learner success including parents, peers, genes, trauma, nutrition and environment. There is no way to quantify them and say one of them is more important than another.

MYTH: Most learners use only 5-10% of the brain.

REALITY: There is no objective evidence that this is true. On a daily basis we probably use most areas of our brain. Increases in creativity or productivity can come from doing the right thing, or doing it more often, rather than simply doing more.

MYTH: Emotions and intelligence are separate.

REALITY: While they may originate in separate places in the brain, their paths usually cross in the orbitofrontal cortex. So, in a sense, they are inseparable.

MYTH: Mozart is the best music for enhancing learning.

REALITY: Recent studies show many kinds of music can work as well as, or better, than Mozart. One of Mozart’s compositions (K.448) has shown a modest enhancement in spatial-temporal learning.

MYTH: Learning Styles and Multiple intelligences are brain-based.

REALITY: These make good sense based on what we know about the brain. They address the uniqueness of the human brain. But both were developed before our current understanding of the brain and have stronger roots in psychology and social science than neurology.

MYTH: The adult brain cannot grow new cells.

REALITY: Studies have demonstrated that the human brain can and does grow new cells in the hippocampus. Just as importantly, the cells do take on functional roles and interact with existing cells.

MYTH: Getting the right answer quickly is best.

REALITY: Given the value of trial and error learning, probably those who are not the quickest (and not the slowest) are more likely to be better, more reflective thinkers.

MYTH: An enriched environment is one with posters, mobiles, manipulatives & music.

REALITY: Enrichment occurs more because of the process that the learners are undergoing. You need a prevailing contrast from the “baseline” environment. If a kids watches TV all day, going out to play is enrichment. Challenge, feedback, novelty, coherence and time are crucial ingredients for re-wiring the brain. Enrichment means heavier cells, greater dendritic branching, more glial cells, multiple synaptic junctions and, in some cases, new cell growth (in the hippocampus).

MYTH: More focused classroom attention by students on the teacher improves learning.

REALITY: Students need time to digest, think, reflect and act on their learning for connections to strengthen.

MYTH: More content per hour is better.

REALITY: Each subject and each learner probably have an ideal amount of ”ideas per hour” that can be learned based on learner background, motivation, learning skills and subject complexity and novelty. Only language acquisition occurs better with more content per hour.

MYTH: The left brain is logical.

REALITY: The left hemisphere is better with sequencing, language, parts and creating internal dialogues (interpreting events). Any logic produced is not a structure=function relationship result.

MYTH: We now know how to best assess learning.

REALITY: Much of what we learn we still don’t know how to assess. Examples include volition, subject affinity and the development of mental models.

MYTH: More synapses formed means greater intelligence.

REALITY: There is no evidence that this is true.

MYTH: All can learn and meet high standards.

REALITY: This is true only for those who have healthy brains. Add up all the students with some kind of brain dysfunction problems (depression, brain insults, ADD, drug usage, dyslexia, OCD, distress, alcohol, trauma, etc.) and you’ll have from 40-60% of your school population, depending on the school. Healthy brains make for good learners who can reach high standards. Students with unhealthy brains commonly have learning problems. Can they be reached? Most of them, yes, if there are sufficient resources. Others may never reach their potential.

MYTH: The right brain is creative.

REALITY: The right brain processes spatial information, works randomly and with wholes (the gestalt). None of these attributes guarantee creativity. There are very clear, anatomical and functional differences between the left brain and right brain. But how much value there is in applying that knowledge is questionable.

Summary

Brain-based education is not a panacea nor magic bullet to solve all of education’s problems. Anyone who represents that to others is misleading them. It is not yet a program, a model or package for schools to follow. One critic of brain-based education said, “It will at least be 25 years before the benefits of brain research reach the classroom.”

I’ll cite just one example to show you why I disagree.

The reading improvement product FastForword, was developed by two neuroscientists, Stanford’s Dr. Michael Merzenich and Dr. Paula Tallal from Rutgers. That product is already in use today in thousands of classrooms around the country. Many students have been helped by it. It specifically uses discoveries in neural plasticity to change the brain’s ability to read the printed word. The fact is, the benefits are already reaching the classroom. And they’re not just through thousands of books and in-services.

Schools should not be run based solely on the biology of the brain. However, to ignore what we do know about the brain would be equally irresponsible. Brain-based education offers some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching. It offers the possibility of less hit or miss in the classroom. We have learned about how environments impact our learning, the role of trauma and the effects of distress and threat. With additional clarity in research, brain-based approaches may soon suggest far better options for those struggling with learning.

Yes, we are in the infancy of brain research–there’s so much more to learn that we don’t know. But dismissing it as fad-like, premature or opportunistic is not only shortsighted, but also probably dangerous to our learners. Of course brain research seems conflicting, hazy, confusing, and contradictory. It’s new! That should be expected! But to criticize it? At this early stage, that would be like calling the first dim lightbulb by Thomas Edison a failure because it only was a 10 watt bulb and produced minimal brightness.

The future belongs to those with vision who can grasp not just trends, but the importance of them. Nothing is more relevant to you than your brain or the brain of your spouse, parents, or children. We might as well get used to it. Integrating brain research with our every day lives is here to stay.

Eric Jensen

photo credit: TangYauHoong

Self-Control Made Easy

February is the time of the year when it’s not only colder, you’re more likely to have sick days, but also you’re heading into the testing season, too. Oh, one more thing…we tend to put on a few pounds, too!

Any help out there?

This month, we’ll learn about how to get yourself and your kids to do much, much more. We’ll learn about the science behind “self-control”. This executive function skill turns out to have such an enormous impact on our lives that those that are higher in self-control tend to be sick less often, earn more money, have better quality relationships, get more schooling, earn higher degrees, are happier and even donate more money. In short, there’s a very, very strong correlation with quality of life.

But…is it teachable? For the surprising news, keep reading…

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Last year every workshop sold out. This is you fair warning: your EARLY BIRD DISCOUNT ENDS SOON!

There are many reasons why students are not as fully engaged in school as we might wish, particularly at the middle, high school and collegiate level. One big reason is that teachers simply don’t know WHAT to do when things drag on, kids get listless and the topic is deadly boring. I have been collecting “knock your socks off” active engagement strategies for 30 years. If you have not yet done so, check out our amazing 2-day Go to: Tools for Engagement event this summer.

You get one chance this year, then that’s it! Join us for “Teaching with the Brain in Mind” in San Antonio, Texas. Airfares are low, hotel rates in San Antonio are great, but time is running out. CLICK HERE for more information. Practical strategies? You bet! Expect to get dozens of them. Fun? You bet! Learning? Off the charts good!

If you work at a high poverty school, drop everything and learn the insider secrets of “Teaching with Poverty in Mind.” It’s based on the best-selling ASCD book that’s catching on like wildfire. This course has been revised and improved over last year, and it’s even better!

Thanks to the staff developers and administrators who attended our SOLD OUT… 3-Day event called “Game-Changers.” The next one will be a sell-out too, so as soon as you hear about it, JUMP ON IT!

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The Research

We know that self-control has a genetic component (as do many of the executive function skills). But that only speaks about a small likelihood of its strength, not certainty. As usual, DNA is not your destiny. The research on self-control is complex and messy.

Here is what we know (that is relevant to you) and what the research tells us.

First, the effects of low self-control tend to be persistent. Individuals who were less able to delay gratification in preschool and consistently showed low self-control abilities in their twenties and thirties performed more poorly than did high delayers.

Second, self-regulation can be taught. I’ll tell you how a bit later on.

Third, the sensitivity to environmental “hot” cues plays a significant role in the individuals’ ability to suppress actions toward such stimuli. For example, a crying baby (chocolate or sexy peer) may trigger to activate the brain’s “hot” cue in one, but not in another. Thus, resistance to temptation is partly predicted by environmental cue sensitivity.

We know that willpower is depleted by usage. For example, some kids have to work VERY hard to PAY attention, or to NOT touch another student. After a while, their brains have “run out of” willpower. The longer dieters are tempted, the harder it is to stay away from their sinful wishes.

We know that we use the same “stockpile” of willpower for all the tasks we do. If a husband and wife have to exert willpower ALL day at their jobs, when they get home, they may not have the raw energy left to be “nice” to their spouse. They’ve used up their willpower!

The scientific term is called, ‘Decision fatigue’. It can explain why competent people can do very stupid things if you catch them at the wrong time. We have learned that willpower can be for control of thoughts (ever heard a song that you can’t get out of your head?), emotions, work performance or just about anything. It can be taught and it can be learned, but the key is give the person a reason to do things. A huge component of willpower is that the fuel for it is glucose. Having enough glucose in our blood and brain means we can exert better self-control.

Practical Applications

Here is what the scientists have learned about willpower. While there are many strategies, we’ll focus on just three of the BIG ones.

First, we have a limited supply of it (willpower), so focus on just one task or challenge at a time.

Narrow your goals to the one or two things that matter most. Build confidence with small time amounts (“Can you do this for just 30 seconds, please?”). Then, over time, continue to build up the length of time for the classroom task (“We’ve already tried and succeeded at 30 seconds, so let’s try for one full minute this time.”) Avoid asking kids at school to resist something. Instead, just deflect or redirect their attention to something more interesting. Limit the brain and get small things accomplished. Keep the task short, compelling and over time, you can extend it.

Second, the relationship between willpower and glucose is well studied.

A single act of self-control causes glucose to drop below optimal levels, thereby impairing subsequent attempts at self-control. In short, when our blood sugar is low, we run out of willpower (we get to the “Oh, whatever” stage, where anything will do). Low levels of blood glucose after an initial self-control task predicted poor performance on a subsequent self-control task. When we consume a glucose drink, it reduces self-control impairments. To raise blood sugar, there are only 3 options: 1) food or drink, which is expensive, 2) movement which releases glucose stored as glycogen in the liver, or 3) strong emotions which trigger the release of glucose. No glucose means no willpower. By the way, this applies to dieters.

Third, to reduce the depletion risk, make things actionable for your brain.

Avoid putting anything down on your “to do” list that you cannot at least take some immediate action on. When you write out your goals and plans, write them so that each can be done ASAP.

In other words, “Send Valentine’s cards,” can’t be done unless you already have either located the website to use (and have the email addresses), or have the physical addresses (and bought the envelopes, cards and stamps). Only put on a “to do list” that which can or must be done next, not a vague project like, “Paint the bathroom.” For Valentines, your first item might be, locate awesome Valentine’s website (see below for a suggestion).

Special Websites FOR THE MONTH:

For Valentine’s Day, go to: http://gpage.hubpages.com/hub/GREAT-VALENTINES-DAY-E-CARD-SITES

Another great newsletter! The IAE Newsletter is free of charge and specifically oriented toward educators, parents, and others who are seriously interested in improving the world’s education systems. http://i-a-e.org/iae-newsletter.html

AND

Looking for something fun and online for the younger brain? Go to Eric Chudler’s site. He’s a neuroscientist at UW. Go to: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/flash/ua/home.html

TRAVEL AND PRESENTING:

February is here and I’m now in Asia. In January I was in Texas, Minnesota, Santa Barbara and Lafayette. I’ll be in Singapore, Hong Kong and Mainland China. Back home for a few days, then off to work with some key districts and individual schools. I love my work!

ANNOUNCEMENTS:

Have you visited our new lesson-planning site yet? Go to www.10minutelessonplans.com and start planning dynamite lesson plans immediately. It’s in the “new and improved” Beta testing stage, so be sure to send us some feedback and suggestions, too.

Your partner in learning,

Eric Jensen

Eric Jensen
CEO, Jensen Learning
Brain-Based Education

CITATIONS:

Casey BJ, Somerville LH, Gotlib IH, Ayduk O, Franklin NT, Askren MK, Jonides, J, Berman MG, Wilson NL, Teslovich T, Glover G, Zayas V, Mischel W, Shoda Y. (2011) Behavioral and neural correlates of delay of gratification 40 years later. Proc. Natl Acad Sci U S A. Sep 6;108(36):14998-5003

Eigsti, IM, et al. (2006) Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychol Sci 17:478e484.

Gailliot MT, Baumeister RF, DeWall CN, Maner JK, Plant EA, Tice DM, Brewer LE, Schmeichel BJ. (2007) Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: willpower is more than a metaphor. J Pers Soc Psychol. Feb;92(2):325-36

Hare TA, Tottenham N, Davidson MC, Glover GH, Casey BJ (2005) Contributions of amygdala and striatal activity in emotion regulation. Biol Psychiatry 57:624

Kubzansky LD, Martin LT, Buka SL (2009) Early manifestations of personality and adult health: A life course perspective. Health Psychol 28:125.

Metcalfe J, Mischel W (1999) A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower. Psychol Rev 106:3.

Mischel W, Shoda Y, Peake PK (1988) The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification. J Pers Soc Psychol 54:687.

Mischel W, Shoda Y, Rodriguez MI (1989) Delay of gratification in children. Science 244:933.

Moffitt TE, et al. (2011) A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:2693.

Posne MI, Rothbart MK (2000) Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Dev. Psychopathol 12:427.

Rothbart MK, Ahadi SA (1994) Temperament and the development of personality. J Abnorm Psychol 103:55e66.

Somerville LH, Casey BJ (2010) Developmental neurobiology of cognitive control and motivational systems. Curr Opin Neurobiol 20:236e241.

photo credit: chotda